Toxoplasma brain parasites can cause personality alterations. 

Of all causes of foodborne disease, a brain parasite called toxoplasma is ranked as the fourth leading cause of hospitalization and the second leading cause of death in the United States. Nearly a quarter of us have already been infected, one in three of us by the time we hit our 50s, as you can see in the graph below and at 0:22 in my video Long-Term Effects of Toxoplasmosis Brain Infection. 

Although we may then be stuck with this parasite in our brain for life, our immune system is so good at keeping it at bay that, for most healthy people, it’s never able to rear its ugly head—or at least not overtly. Studies have shown associations between toxoplasma infection and the presence of various psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar, suicide, self-harm, and memory impairment when we get older. How can a tiny parasite alter our very behavior? 

I have talked before about how the rabies virus waits in the saliva while specifically targeting the emotions center of the brain to drive animals into a fury, so they’ll effectively do its bidding to bite others to transmit the virus. And there is the famous zombie-ant brain fungus that takes over the animal completely. These are examples of “parasitic manipulation,” where the parasite manipulates the host to “enhance its own transmission by altering host behaviour.” Toxoplasma is “perhaps one of the most convincing examples of a manipulative parasite of vertebrates,” higher animals, like us. 

Since the parasite thrives in cats, “chronically infected rodents no longer respond to cat odour with fear and indeed the physical response is reversed to attraction.” Mice become attracted to the smell of cats and thereby serve up the parasite on a silver platter. The parasite manipulates the rodent’s brain, “turning their innate aversion into a ‘suicidal’ ‘fatal feline attraction.’” Mice become attracted to cat pee, and this fatal attraction appears specific towards cats. They don’t become attracted to pee in general; they remain indifferent to rabbit pee, for instance, and continue to be turned off by the pee of other predators. So, on one hand, the parasitic manipulation appears to be incredibly specific, but the parasite doesn’t just want the mouse to seek out the cat. It wants the mouse to get eaten. So, there are general effects, too, such as impaired motor function, slower response times, and impaired memory and coordination. When the cat pounces, the parasite tries to make sure the mouse doesn’t get away. Similarly, when California sea otters get infected with toxoplasma, they’re more likely to get eaten by a shark. It’s not that the parasite wants to get into the shark; it may just be a by-product of the kind of general cognitive deficits that are so helpful for the parasite in other contexts. 

When humans get infected, we also start liking the smell of cat pee. Isn’t that wild? The parasite knows just what strings to pull, but it’s the more general effects we’re concerned about. We don’t need to worry that our newfound appreciation for saber-toothed tiger urine is going to get us eaten, but mucking with our reaction times could be problematic. That could be why multiple studies have shown more traffic and worksite accidents among those who are chronically infected. It may not just be our slowed reaction time, though. The parasite also appears to affect “subtle behavioural alterations,” like making us more likely to take risks. Great for the parasite in the cat-and-mouse game, but not so much if we’re driving a car or wondering whether or not to take that next drink. Maybe one reason people with this brain parasite get into so many car accidents is that it may make people engage in riskier behaviors, like excessive alcohol consumption. 

We typically think of malaria as being humanity’s greatest killer parasite. “However, when we take into account the hundreds of thousands of deaths that occur due to the increased probability of traffic accidents, working accidents, suicides, and possibly also other side effects of the infection, we are forced to admit that ‘asymptomatic’ latent toxoplasmosis”—that is, toxoplasma infection that has infected one in four Americans—“could easily take malaria down from its throne.” Before I get into how to prevent and treat the darn thing, what might these “other side effects” be? 

How exactly does toxoplasma manipulate its host’s behavior? Well, one clue we got decades ago is the increased level of dopamine in the brains of infected mice. You can even show it right in a petri dish of infected brain tissue, as you can see in the graph below and at 4:28 in my video. It turns out that these parasites actually have an enzyme to make dopamine from scratch, which they then release into the surrounding brain tissue. Why do we care? Because elevated dopamine is a characteristic of schizophrenia. Nearly all modern antipsychotic drugs work by trying to bring down dopamine levels by either inhibiting dopamine receptors or decreasing the level of dopamine in the brain. 

Researchers posited that “[i]t is possible that the increased dopamine accumulation and release observed during T. gondii [toxoplasma] infection may contribute to… schizophrenia.” That should be easy to figure out. Do schizophrenics have an increased prevalence of infection? Indeed, the “increased prevalence of toxoplasmosis in schizophrenics was demonstrated by at least 50 studies…” 

Remember: Chronic infection is not rare. Nearly one in four American adults and adolescents are already infected. If that surprises you, you may have missed the other videos in my four-part series: 

• Toxoplasmosis: A Manipulative Foodborne Brain Parasite 
• Does Toxoplasmosis Cause Schizophrenia? 
• How to Prevent Toxoplasmosis 

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Nearly one quarter of Americans have already been infected with the brain parasite toxoplasma. 

Toxoplasma is a brain parasite that may infect a million Americans every year, making it “a leading cause of severe foodborne illness in the United States.” Nearly one quarter of adults and adolescents in the United States have already been infected. Newly acquired infections in a pregnant woman can be devastating. In most people with intact immune systems, though, these parasites just sit in your brain in a fine-tuned balance between the parasite and your immune system, just lying in wait, hoping you’ll get sick so your immune system will slip, and it can come back raging and spreading throughout the brain. Indeed, the “infection is lethal in the context of active HIV-AIDS,” for instance. 

But in healthy, non-pregnant individuals, the parasite just sits there with “long-term, potentially lifelong residence in the brains of healthy individuals and animals”—kept at bay by our immune system—“without any significant clinical consequence,” and, as such, “chronic toxoplasma infection has been viewed as a benign condition.” Until now, that is. As I discuss in my video Toxoplasmosis: A Manipulative Foodborne Brain Parasite, “This absence of overt symptomology has contributed to the view that tissue cysts and the bradyzoites they house”—that is, the cysts in the brain formed by the parasites—“are dormant entities.” However, recent developments “directly challenge the notion that chronic toxoplasma infections are without consequence. An emerging body of evidence suggests that the presence of an established chronic infection may contribute to the pathogenesis [development] of diverse neurological conditions including schizophrenia, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative conditions.” That doesn’t sound good. 

These effects may not be a direct consequence of the parasite, but rather “driven by persistent low level of inflammation in the infected brain.” Either way, not good. Let’s explore these new data that have gotten neurologists so worried, review strategies on how not to get infected in the first place, and determine what one might be able to do to mediate the effects if you are one of the one in four Americans who is already infected. 

Suspicions that infections might play a role in mental health date back more than a century. An editorial from an 1896 publication of Scientific American asked, “Is insanity due to a microbe?” Well, “for millions of years, parasites have altered the behaviour of their hosts.” 

Consider the diabolical effects of the rabies virus, which is “usually transmitted in the saliva by biting animals, so it makes sense that the virus taps specifically into the limbic system of the brain, turning its victims from Fido into Cujo to facilitate transmission of the virus. But brain parasites can do more than just switch behaviors on and off. “Some parasites can adaptively take over and completely control the behavior of their hosts,” like the famous “zombie ants.” “‘Enslaver’ fungi make their insect hosts die perched in a position that favors the dispersal of [fungal] spores by the wind.” You can see the head of a manipulated ant, colonized by tendrils of the fungus, below and at 3:06 in my video.

“Ants infected by the fungus…die in a dramatic way.” Once the ant is positioned just so, “dying is preceded by biting behaviour where ants clamp onto plant surfaces” to keep it stable while the fungus bursts out of the back of the ant’s head and grows a long stalk, as you can see below and at 3:30 in my video. Can you believe that?! 

There are others, too. For example, some aquatic parasites “cause various insect hosts (e.g. crickets, ants) to drown themselves so the adult parasite can reproduce in water; parasitoids cause bees to bury themselves alive or spiders to build aerial cocoons so as to protect the developing parasitoid pupa…” Those are parasitic wasps that lay their eggs in the abdomen of spiders. On the night the larva eats its way out—“the night that it will kill its host”—the larva marionettes the spider to build it a little home. How creepy is that?! 

These are insects with simple brains, though. Surely, brain parasites couldn’t affect complex behaviors in higher animals, could they? This brings us to toxoplasma. 

“Toxoplasma is known to manipulate the behavior of their hosts to increase the probability that the host is captured by a predator.” For example, toxoplasma can reproduce in cats, but how is it going to get itself from the brain of an infected mouse into the cat? It can hijack the mouse’s brain and “change their native, inborn fear of the odor of cats into an attraction to this odor.” The parasite causes the mouse to develop a fatal attraction to cats, which is good for the parasite, not so good for the mouse. 

I know what you’re thinking: What does this have to do with human mental illness? How do I avoid becoming infected in the first place? This video is part of my series on the toxoplasma this parasite. The others are: 

• Long-Term Effects of Toxoplasmosis Brain Infection
• Does Toxoplasmosis Cause Schizophrenia?
• How to Prevent Toxoplasmosis 

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Meet Nisha Vora. We had the pleasure of talking with Nisha about all things spices.

How did you learn about spices and their culinary richness? Were you taught by someone in your family, did you learn from experience, or both?

I credit most of what I know about spices to my mother. She’s been cooking Indian food for 40+ years, so cooking with spices is so intuitive for her. She doesn’t use measuring teaspoons yet her food is always perfectly spiced. Once I started to observe her in the kitchen, I found myself feeling more confident and eager to experiment with spices in my own cooking.

Why are spices essential for any kitchen and type of cuisine?

Spices are such a fabulous way to enliven virtually any type of cuisine. They can seriously enhance the flavor and aroma of countless dishes, from bean chili to tofu stir fries to breakfast cookies. They can even jazz up your morning bowl of oatmeal or your favorite banana bread. 

It doesn’t hurt that most spices boast serious health benefits, including antioxidants and anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties, and even glucose- and cholesterol-lowering activities.

What are the top five must-have spices to keep on hand?

I’m sure most chefs will have varying answers, but for me, if I could choose just five, I’d pick earthy cumin, citrusy coriander, bold turmeric, sweet and warm cinnamon, and some sort of chile flakes for heat. (Red pepper flakes are available everywhere, but my personal favorite is Aleppo pepper.) While I rely on other spices and dried herbs like garlic and onion powder, dried ginger, and oregano, you can get those flavors from the fresh ingredients (e.g., whole onions, ginger, garlic, and fresh oregano), so they wouldn’t be in my top five must-haves.  

What is the biggest mistake you see people make when it comes to using spices?

Not toasting the spices first! Heat unlocks the volatile oils found inside of spices, causing them to change shape and form more complex flavor compounds. You’re basically getting more flavor bang for your buck when you toast spices.  If your pot of chili has ever tasted bitter, it’s probably because the recipe simply added the ground spices into the liquid instead of toasting them first. (Usually, you’ll briefly toast your spices after you’ve sauteed the aromatics like onions and garlic.)

 

What are the best ways to bring out the natural flavors of spices without using oils?

Buy whole spices, toast them, and then grind them.  

Whole spices are a flavor powerhouse compared to pre-ground spices since they have protective seed coatings that keep them fresh for much longer than ground spices. 

If you compare the aroma and flavor of a bottle of pre-ground cumin with freshly toasted whole cumin seeds, the difference is pretty dramatic. The latter has a nuttier, deeper and more complex flavor (and aroma). 

To toast whole spices, simply preheat a dry frying pan over medium or medium-high heat. Add your spices and shake the pan back and forth or stir from time to time to prevent burning. It’ll take just a few minutes for the spices to turn a few shades darker and become super aromatic. 

Take the spices off the heat. Once cooled, grind them using a spice grinder, mortar and pestle, or even a coffee grinder. Now use your ground spices in whatever dish that calls for them. This will take your soup, curry, stew, or whatever else you’re cooking to new heights. 

How can home cooks use spices for the best results? Are there any tried and true strategies for better understanding the flavor profiles of spices and what pairs well together?

I recommend getting a copy of the Vegetarian Flavor Bible book. It lists every imaginable whole food ingredient, including spices, and gives you lots of flavor pairings and sample dishes to spark your imagination. 

Learning which spices pair well together (and what quantities to use them in) is something that comes with practice, so don’t be shy about experimenting in the kitchen. You can also look to chefs who are masters of specific cuisines to see how they pair spices together. (YouTube is a fantastic resource.) I often find myself spending hours watching Indian chefs on YouTube. Even if they’re cooking something non-vegan, I inevitably learn something new about spices and how to incorporate them into my cooking. 

Are all spices created equal? If not, how can people source quality spices?

All spices are definitely not created equal. I think it’s pretty easy to view spices as a pre-made commercial product, but spices are actually more like fresh vegetables or fruits. They’re grown by farmers working on farms and in fields, most often in developing countries, and growing and processing them is labor- and time-intensive.

In general, smaller brands that have shorter supply chains will be able to offer spices that are not only the freshest and most flavorful, but they typically also have more ethical and transparent practices around sourcing, sustainability, and labor.  

Two of my favorite small businesses that source wonderful spices and prioritize fair wages and sustainable sourcing are Burlap and Barrel and Diaspora Co. 

At supermarkets, I like using the brands Frontier Co-op, which offers a large selection of organic and Fair Trade certified spices, and Simply Organic. 

What are the best ways to store spices? What is the general shelf life people should be mindful of?

Away from sunlight and heat, so ideally in your pantry or in a cupboard. If you’ve been storing your spices in a cabinet above your stove or oven, try finding a different spot, as the proximity to heat will damage your spices. 

You also want to minimize their exposure to air, so airtight containers and tight-fitting glass jars or commercial-grade plastic bags are best. 

Ground spices typically have a shelf life of six months to a year. Whole spices are usually good for one to two years. Open your spice bottle and take a whiff. If the aroma is faint or barely there, it’s past its prime. 

You can revive older spices a bit by slowly toasting them in a dry pan. For whole spices, toast for three to four minutes over low heat and stir or toss constantly, or until they start to look a bit oily and smell aromatic. You need to be more careful with ground spices; they need just a minute. 

What are some other essential or helpful tips you’d like to share about using spices in cooking?

Go easy on the turmeric! Too often I see home cooks add way too much turmeric. It’s a strong spice, and too much of it will overpower and even ruin your dish. A quarter or half teaspoon is usually sufficient, maybe a teaspoon if you’re cooking a spice-heavy Indian dish. It also needs to cook a bit longer than other ground spices; otherwise, it can taste a bit raw.

Please tell us a little bit about your work and career. I’m a vegan food blogger, YouTuber, cookbook author, and the creator of Rainbow Plant Life, a destination site for outstanding flavor-packed vegan recipes. On YouTube, I share informative yet entertaining videos where I teach home cooks how to level up their cooking skills from a plant-based perspective. I started Rainbow Plant Life as a creative outlet when I was still a lawyer, then transitioned into the food startup world where I worked for a few years while side hustling. I went full-time on Rainbow Plant Life in 2019, shortly after my first cookbook, The Vegan Instant Pot Cookbook, was released. My second cookbook will be published in 2024.  Please tell us a little bit about your forthcoming book. My second cookbook will be published next year, in 2024 (Avery Books / Penguin Random House). It’s an encapsulation of my approach to building maximally flavorful vegan food that is fun and exciting yet approachable.

 

You can find Nisha here, on YouTube here, and on Instagram here. 

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